Property Tax Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Property measure - Essay ExampleAssuming that David is having to a greater extent than station in UK, assuming that David new property at 12, Mudchute chat up is second property possess by him or one of the many properties he owned, then, for reducing his upper-case letter gain tax, he gage claim the following as a deduction from the bang-up gains earned on the disposal of 12, Mudchute Court namely fees paid to solicitors, all professional fees paid to estate agents, Stamp Duty Land Tax (SDLT) and expenses incurred for improving the property.Further, as David lived in the new property bought for few weeks, he can term it as principal private residence to avail exemptions between properties he owned as he is planning to sell it after two years. However, David has to establish some corroborations that he lived there for some time albeit pull down it is for short-term. If David resided in that house even for some weeks in the new property which should be his second or one of th e many properties owned by him, which facilitates him to write off the past three years of capital gains when David decides to sell it after two years. Thus, David should elect the new property as his residence and should inform the Income-Tax governing within two years of purchase of 12, Mudchute Court. It is to be noted that the choice can be changed by the David if he wants to select some other property he owned. If he fails to inform about his linguistic rule private residence to tax authorities , then , he would be losing his chance to claim exemption from capital gain taxes under the above scheme4.It is to be noted that just living in the property for avoidance of capital gain taxes can prove to be costlier to David as held in Court of pull in in HRMC5 case where the defendant employed an intricate chain of derivative transactions to minimise capital gain tax on 10.7 m. The court opined that any

The Disease Process of Cardiomyopathy Term Paper

The Disease Process of myocardiopathy - Term Paper pillow slipIt is included in the list of complaints that has the highest morbidity rate in the worlds aging population. The score and the time course of the disease vary and do not coincide with the linear expression of symptoms. pot suffering from such disease normally have asymptomatic left hand ventricular systolic dysfunction, left ventricular diastolic dysfunction or both. Congestive flavour failure (CHF) is the state of the disease that is denotative when the balance between malfunction and compensation is disordered such that cardiac output can no longer be maintained at normal left ventricular filling pressures. (Giles & Sander, 1988, p 16) Types of Cardiomyopathy There are three founts of cardiomyopathy dilated, hypertrophic and unclassified cardiomyopathy. Dilated cardiomyopathy is the most common among the three types. In this type, the hearts main pumping chamber the left ventricle, coming from the term dilated, grows bigger than its normal size. The world power to pump line of backgrounding throughout the body pay offs less forceful, making the declension flow uneasily. (Giles & Sander, 1988, p 24) Although as mentioned above, Cardiomyopathy 3 cardiomyopathy can occur to people of any ages this is most commonly seen in middle-aged people and is much often to occur in men. Some people who have this type of cardiomyopathy acquire the disease hereditary. The second type of cardiomyopathy is hypertrophic. This type of the disease entails the abnormal node of the heart muscle, affecting the main pumping chamber of the heart the left ventricle. As the thickening occurs, it affects the blood circulation in the body due to the stiffening and the shrinking of the hearts pumping chamber, which affects the ability of the heart to deliver blood to the entire body. Just like any other types of this disease, this may develop in any ages scarcely it becomes more visible during childhood. (Giles & Sander, 1988, p 33) Normally, people who acquire this disease have a family history and more often than not, linked to some genetic mutations. Affected patients of this type of cardiomyopathy may be asymptomatic or may have signs of hindlimb paralysis or acute dyspnea. Examinations demonstrate abnormal heart sounds from mild to prominent systolic cardiac murmurs and gallop heart sounds. The last type of cardiomyopathy is unclassified or better known as restrictive cardiomyopathy. The heart muscles of people who develop this type of disease become rigid and less elastic, which tends the heart to not expand properly to be able to contain blood between heartbeats. This is common in older people although it can develop in any ages on the dot like the other types. This type is the least common among the three and can occur without known reason idiopathic. (Giles & Sander, 1988, p 41) This can also be caused by other diseases that affect the heart. This type includes patients with vi sible abnormalities in the myocardium on echocardiography that do not fit into the other two types. This type of disease is also seen in cats. As mentioned above, Cardiomyopathy 4 restrictive cardiomyopathy have unknown causes. Nursing Intervention The disease is defined as ventricular dilation, systolic contractible dysfunction, low cardiac output and other congestive heart failure symptoms (crackles, edema, etc.) The decrease in the blood supply comes hand in hand with the decrease of union of oxygen supply in the body. This can lead to kidney

Mainland china culture oriented market Research Paper

Mainland china culture oriented market - query Paper ExampleEssentially, the diversity in culture is among the core aspects significant while a society puts interest in the global market moreover, most business researchers and leaders put a dish of focus on this factor, as it is a core determiner of where a company stands in the world-wide market.In some countries such as China and Japan, pile buy products basing on the perception of a group i.e. people buy foodstuffs putting into consideration every member of the family however, in the US and UK people purchase things according to their own opinion or preference (Fernanda 2009). This is among the main factors causing the difference in market approach and market plan i.e. States in Asia prefer collective advertising while the get together States concentrates on individual advertising. The main cypher that relates to how the culture impacts, is the language which most states consider to signify narcissism and a legacy however, there are other symbols that matter just as much but this is the basis of how an organization approaches a certain market. This research paper focuses on mainland China as an emerging market moreover, it analyses the difference between China based companies and others from the west evaluating the market plans and approach for the two.Most corporations in China have developed over the years as their businesses plans, strategies continue to become more cracking and leaning more to the culture however, this poses as a challenge to the companies in the western countries (Sin 2004). Most of these corporations that decide to enter the international market fail because they overlook the cultural differences in mainland China and the only air out is to understand the diversities and exploit them through new marketing strategies that will be the foundation of the boilersuit success in these markets.In an exploration of the Chinese market approach, its essential that one compares the dis similar kinds of corporations and organizations

Passing by Nella Larsen Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Passing by Nella Larsen - strain ExampleThe selection and the portrayal of the thematic issues in the novel just as is the case with some(prenominal) other types of literature relies on the selection of the literary elements as the below analysis of Passing portrays. get wind among the literary elements is the use of first person narration in the novel. A voice is always prerequisite in a novel since the author adopts a particular voice in conveying his or her message through and through the plot. In the Passing, the author adopts the first person narration technique. The author narrates the story through the experiences of the lead character, Irene Redfield. Living in the Harlem area of New York, Irene Redfield is a composite race woman who strives to immix in the racial discriminate American society at the time. The story in the novel therefrom recounts he life and experiences of Irene Redfield and her numerous white and African American friends as they face numerous challeng es. The bodily process in the novel opens up with Irene receiving a letter from her long lost friend, Clare Kendry.The letter reminds her of their times unneurotic and the experiences they had in the city. The author of the novel therefore stylistically transfers her audience back into the history of the characters through a literary device known as flash back. Irene remembers her relationship with Clare the two women are both of mixed ancestry. They therefore underwent similar treatments by the society. Their passionate friendship broke soon after Clares contract died since she went to live with her aunt in a different state. The separation implied that the two would grow up differently (Wall 101). As such, they became two different women a feature in the novel that validates the tension that Irene experiences once she receives the letter. The flashback is a strategic literary device that the author employs deliberately with the view of providing an adequate platform for compar ison.Just as the name suggests and the plot of the novel portrays,

Patton (1970) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Patton (1970) - Essay ExampleThe movie opens with Patton (played convincingly by George C. Scott) addressing his troops with a screen-sized American flag as the backdrop. The film was released in 1970 during the height of the protest movement of the Vietnam War. It reminded the public of a sequence when Americans were proud of their involvement in military actions. The central message concerned the larger than life consultation of Patton and the pride in which he and his troops took in freeing the world from tyranny and oppression, a bandstand lost in the turbulent times of the Vietnam era when the military was largely vilified. The film was essentially completed in its depiction of historical events but a couple of aspects stood out as inaccurate such as Pattons speech to his troops in which he apologized for the slapping incident. If you dont care for struggle movies at all, its still a decent history lesson but you may want to top your eyes in a couple of scenes. The overal l feeling one takes away after display the film is a deeper appreciation of those that served and died for the greater good and for a man who was the repair person, at the right time in history. Without his strong leadership, it seems that the war would have been prolonged at the very least with the speak to of many more lives.

Personal insight of the film "Sullivan's Travels" Statement

Insight of the film Sullivan&aposs Travels - individualised Statement ExampleSturges prefers planting the tv camera in front of the characters or actors or have the camera follow actors when walking, and simply observing what is witty.The film does not shy in acknowledging the Great Depression. Sullivans discussion, the start-off one, with the studio leaders through the entire film, I see a genuine conflict in the midst of his wishes to present the suffering around him and also their wish in distracting audiences via the making of escapist pictures . It is only in the end does he, Sullivan, notice that perhaps the heads at the studio may be having the right idea.The movie changes fancy style and tone each a few minutes. The movie shows some paradox tone, the movie has bodily fluid and gravity existing side-by-side, the tragicomic picture or view whose objective is comedy but it supposition is a serious in nature the movie aims at both making people jocularity and think.I am i n a dilemma of comfortable classifying Sullivans Travels into either the comedy-not tragedy or comedy-ha-ha modes of humor. Sullivans Travels is more of Sullivans film, and the movie is presenting exactly what the character has set out to discover. Moreover, the movie avails an integration of comedy, inspiration, and commiseration that jointly reinforce and also paradoxically demean the filmmakers argument. The movie has various exquisite scene of gags, for showcase the chase scene where a trailer after Sullivan in the dirt roads and fields, the varied expressions open up on the portrait at the houses window, and a number of characters falling into the pool. The presence of verbal humor emanates in most of the encounters with the Girls sarcastic comments that are dry, and Sullivans associates.The movie Sullivans Travels is also ironic Sturges criticizes the motivations and methods of the Popular Front, but at the same time, he perpetuates to give social retrospect of the manner and style of the Popular Front. Sturges was able to

Leading in a changing word Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Leading in a changing word - Essay ExampleThe leaders styles should be capable of responding to changes in customer demands, economic changes, political changes and changes in the expectations of the employees (Judge and Piccolo 2004 755-768). According to the competency fabricling of leaders development, leaders are expected to deliver, build and drive organisational success. Leaders should create a mean and make decisions with confidence while managing ambiguity (Ibarra & Hansen 2011 71). The leader should also drive change, innovation and make initiatives that open up new business opportunities in order to satisfy customer changing inescapably. A leader should autobus and mentor the subordinates while encouraging feedback and performance evaluation. Adairs leadership perplex is an action-centered leadership deterrent example that asserts that leadership can be applied like a tool and concentrates on the ability of the leader to exhilarate a shared vision. (Adair 1973). According to Adair (2003 04), the leader should provide direction, build effective teams and set an example for the pursuit. This ride asserts that the leadership style exit depend on the character of the leader and unique situation including the needs of the followers and level of task differentiation. The leader should build the team spirit, ensure team cohesiveness and turn over proper communication channels (Ibarra & Hansen 2011 75). Transformational leadership model also provides the guidelines of leading in a changing business environment (Judge and Piccolo 2004 755-768). This model of leadership requires the leader to intellectually stimulate the ideas of the followers through articulating a clear vision and expressing confidence (Mullins, 2010). Individualised influence and inspirational motivation of the leader ensures that the employees express their creativity. In addition, the leader acts as an example thus modeling the behaviour of subordinates. On the other hand, t he model fails in supporting the unique cultural background of the diverse workforce since employees have different norms and values depending on their cultural norms (Judge and Piccolo 2004 755-768). The above challenge can be addressed by ensuring that the leader gains the trust of followers and cordial working environment in order to support teamwork (Mullins, 2010 378). Another leadership style is the situational leadership style that combines task behaviour and relationship behaviour. According to this theory, there is no one acceptable model of leadership. Ideally, this model asserts that leaders should change their leadership approach depending on the unique tasks and relationship with followers (Lord and Brown2001 133-152). The model is acceptable since leaders need to cultivate enabling relationship with the followers. In addition, some tasks may be clearly defined thus requiring minimal leader intervention. In the changing business environment, leaders will be required to change their leadership approach depending on the underlying situation such as the level of relationships, the degree of task differentiation, the use of agrees such as rewards and punishments in the organisation (Judge and Piccolo 2004 755-768). The other model of leadership is transactional leadership. Transactional leaders emphasize on the task outcomes and mainly rely on power systems and control in order to attain the desired goals. This style is fair to all employees since everybody is expected

Security assignment IT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Security assignment IT - Essay Example knowledge should retain its one both with time as well as user at that particular instance of time. scene to corruption, un-monitored changes and destructions disrupt the learning to a devalued or unauthentic state. Information can be corrupted while compilation or storage but in most of the cases it happens while transmission.Availability of information is that it is available for all the users at all the times, so that it can be reached by everyone and is received in an integral form. It also takes into context the positive as well as negative users of the information.This characteristic of information secures the information usability possible only for the purposes known to the data owner. Information is not protected from observation, it can be seen by everyone but it is usable only in the ways known to the author.Information systems have a basic characteristic of identification of the information requester. A system has this characteris tic when it can identify the one-on-one user while user sends the request for the information.When the process of identification and authentication is completed, it is checked that the requesting user has the agency to the requested context and has been provided the authorization permissions from the proper authority.As if information is not confidential, a lot of valuable business decisions can leak from the strategic departments of the organization, which gives an organizations strategic information to the competition, which is hazardous to whatever organization for its financial as well as strategic pursuits.Privacy, authentication and authorization are to make sure the integrity, availability and security of the system. In the lack of these characteristics, information is just a collection of content, which no one knows how to access and anyone can access it without any permissions taken from the owner of the

Economic analysis of Obesity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Economic analysis of Obesity - raise ExampleAccording to the World Health Organization, obesity is secured as the condition marked by excess body fat (Youfa and whitethorn 8). Body Mass Index (BMI) cargo (kg)/ height (m) 2 is widely used to assess obesity. For adults, world health organization defines obesity using BMI cutpoints of 25 and 30 kg/m2, respectively. It has also been recommended that waist circumference cutpoints of 40 inches for men and 35 inches for women be used to define central obesity. For children, BMI percentile of age and gender has been utilized particularly in the U.S. Specifically, overweight is defined as a BMI greater than 95th BMI percentile (Youfa and May 18).Generally, however, it is argued that obese community are defined as those who are more than 20 percent above their medically determined ideal weight. Statistics indicate that, in the past few decades, there has been an increase with the number of Ameri brush asides who are considered to be obese from about 25 percent to about 33 percent (Ogalthorpe 94). Studies have documented that among the major contributing factors include pitiable eating habits and lack of exercise. Due to change in economical times and various laws regarding health and economic issues, many multitude are faced with the risk of becoming obese. With these deliberations, it has been argued that both economically advantaged and economically disadvantages require victims of obese. For example, rich people are argued to be busy with their jobs and businesses. Although they have all the resources necessary to have the nutriment they desire, they lack enough time to exercise (Sassi 102). Children who come from rich families are argued to have a magnetic dip of taking meals of their choices as long as their desires are met. They go for sweet snacks and other foods with high circumscribe of calories. As a consequence, they gain weight, but most of them fail to exercise. On the other hand, poor people may lack enough money to place a balanced diet on their tables. They black market to go for cheap meals, which most of them, unfortunately, contains a lot of starch. Getting alternative meals or other chassis of diets is difficult. This leads to overweight (Youfa and May 12). Economic analysis Economic analysis in relation to obesity can be viewed from two perspectives. One involves economic as a contributing factor to obesity and economic in terms of consequences of obesity. When prices of calories fall, it is apparent that many people will be able to purchase cumulus of it. This is argued to be true because, when food prices are high, some people find it difficult to purchase them (Youfa and May 17). Another issue of concern is when income for many people has gone up. It is obvious that when income has gone up, many people are able to afford different foods and in plenty. The apparent consequence of these deliberations is that rise in weight would be a natural phenomena. Unlike in developing societies, industrialize or post industrialized societies like the United States have problems with balancing weight gain and exercise (Ogalthorpe 91). For example, in developing societies, somatogenic exertion is required to provide with labor. This involves

Why did the Soviet Union collapse Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Why did the Soviet heart give out - Essay ExampleThe Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was founded in the year of 1922 after the Bolshevik Revolution. The USSR had a great impact on the governmental affairs of the world ever since but could not maintain this impact after its downfall. The Soviet Union underwent a rapid collapse in the late twentieth century which was inevitable repayable to the policies and conditions that Russia was undergoing in these times. afterward the World War II the Soviet Union turned out to be a super power which was becoming a threat for the United States and for this reason many tear the United States to be the main cause of Russian collapse. The Soviet power was never able to blow ones stack much under the influence of the U.S agenda. It was under the leadership of Mikhail Gorbachev that Russia began to undergo a political change which could not be handled and thus led to a political turmoil. The United States itself did not play a air role in the collapse of Soviet Union but it did play an indirect role in the collapse. This essay would further revolve around the factors which led to the collapse of the Soviet Union (Watson 1998 Weiss 2009). To understand the extensive collapse of the Soviet Union one has to understand the basic principles on which the democracy was made. From a diachronic point of view it can be seen that the Soviet Union consisted of people belonging to different ethnicities and races. The political ideology of the country was based on the principles of communism in accordance to the theories laid down by Karl Marx. The Communist company was leading the government offices in Soviet Union and the leaders in the party were following a level known as nomenklatura which helped them to access the resources of the state as they wished to (McCauley 2001 p. 86). A novelty of factors led to the fall of the Communist State which have formed a debate amongst the historians. Many cerebrate the sole factor of Afghanistan was enough to collapse the Soviet Union whereas opponents argue that a lot of early(a) factors came into play along with the Afghanistan war which led to the collapse of the state. The major reasons for the collapse of the Soviet Union atomic number 18 cited as the Afghan intervention, the role of Poland, the varying prices of oil in the world and the reaction of the minorities to the government (Usitalo & Whisenhunt 2008). It has been found that the Soviet Union of all time had a conflict of interest with the westernmost and this is the reason because of which the leaders had always aimed to excel from the west. The domestic problems along with the structural problems were the internal problems that the Union was facing because of which it underwent a political unrest. Tilly defines the collapse of the Soviet Union in the following words One of Europes more peculiar revolutions the burst of an empire and the dismantling of its central structure without the direct impact of a war . . . the costly cul in Afghanistan, itself a product of a hugely expensive Cold War with the United States, provided the side by side(predicate) equivalent to those earlier empire-ending wars (Tilly 1993 p 231). In December 1991 the Soviet Union collapsed into fifteen independent countries. The West was victorious in disintegrating the nation and considered the collapse as a victory of capitalism over socialism. After the creation of Soviet Union it was seen that the leaders were implementing a plan through which they could unite all the nations of the Soviet Republic. To carry out such a plan the assimilation process began and Russian was taught to everyone. However more than fifty percent of the population living in the Soviet Union belonged to non Russian back intellect and it became difficult for them to assimilate with the newly laid principles. The economic policies of the state also failed which can be witnessed in the arms race that they had with the Unit ed States. The arms race with United States led to an economic turmoil for the country itself because of which they finally collapsed. The last leader of the country

Probability Games Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Probability Games - Essay ExampleThe currency flip has only ii probable outcomes, that is, either it is heads or tails. One flipped the coin twenty times and got a result of 11 heads and nine tails. Although flipping a coin is said to have an equal chance of coming up on either side, ones experience did not have such a result. This whitethorn be due to the fact that the experiment was only made twenty times. According to frequentists, the probability of getting a heads is 1/2, not because there atomic number 18 two equally likely outcomes but because repeated serial of large estimates of trials demonstrate that the empirical frequency converges to the limit 1/2 as the number of trials goes to infinity (Edurite.com, n.d.).When one played the die roll, one realized that the outcomes are much more than the coin flip because each die has six sides. The other die has also six sides thus, rolling the two dice at the same time would mean that there are greater possible outcomes. It is then harder to predict the results of the dice roll than the coin flip.The method that will be difficult for children to understand is the hypothetical method because it is difficult to imagine it. Experimental probabilities are easier to understand because they can see it clearly, such as the coin flipping. For children, using formulas to determine the probabilities is quite a challenge.Through the games that one played, one learned that in determining probabilities, it is important that one knows what the likely outcomes of the experiment are. One also learned that some outcomes may have equal likely outcomes while others may be mutually exclusive events (Homepages.ius.edu, n.d.). There are also some events which may be non-mutually exclusive, which means that some events may have common outcomes (Homepages.ius.edu, n.d.).The record of probabilities is very relevant to decision making. Although, the experiment that one performed by playing the coin flip and the dice roll may not be so important,

On the assignment sheet Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

On the assignment sheet - Essay ExampleGrammar Girl outlines a number of reasons to rationalise why most companies will not include an apostrophe in the names. First, the companies omit an apostrophe in their names because the inclusion of an apostrophe does not favor the creation of a good IP address. It has been shown that names with apostrophes drive less traffic to the site because they rank low in search. This is because most users will forget to include apostrophe when searching. It is important to promissory note that some(prenominal) people are more relaxed on the use of an apostrophe in spoken languageSecond, many companies omit apostrophes in their names because the center for domestic name registration does not favor it (Grammar Girl, 414). Therefore, this establishment advises many companies to omit the apostrophe in their names. They believe that the inclusion of an apostrophe makes the name too personal, which is not good for open properties. Consequently, the inc lusion or omission of apostrophe depends on the kind of audience that one is targeting.The narrator in this contingency of Grammar Girl uses historical and genuinely examples to convince her audience. She refers to real life examples to show the application of apostrophe in real life. The dilemma that involves including or omitting an apostrophe is explained vividly the narrator.In conclusion, the use of apostrophe in company names is not third estate because, in most cases, it makes the business too personal. It is, also, true that the use of apostrophe is more strict written face than in spoken English. The use of apostrophe in business names depends on personal

History of Religon on Planet Earth Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

History of Religon on Planet Earth - Essay ExampleThese different pietisms have vie an important role in the history of benignant civilization.The history of theology is as old as the human civilization. The ancient human evolved on Earth between 400,000 and 250,000 year ago. It is still unknown that when earth became religious or when did the religion develop on Earth, but there are several evidences active religion being followed by the ancient human, around 300,000 to 50,000 year ago. Symbolic evidences of religion have been retrieved from Africa which belongs to the sum Stone Age. These evidences symbolize the Lion man, the Venus figurines and the elaborate ritual burial.Urreligion- The term means proto religion or primitive religion. It represents the oldest form of religion. This word contrasts with the organized religion which is theocracies of the ancient urban grow of the current world religion. The Oeconomische Encyclopdie of J. G. Krnitz (1773 - 1858) defines it as the oldest intrinsic religion of mankind, in particular the religion of Adam and Eve, which according to the dogmatists is supposed to have been reveald .There are many other theories like Animism proposed by Edward burnett Tylor and Herbert Spencer, Fetishism by the very fomous biologyst John Lubbock and the theory of naturalism. Naturalism is also known as the materialism. This is a philosophical model which says that explanation of everything can be given through natural causes. As per this theory, physical matter is the only reality and it excludes the super natural agents or activities. The philosophers agree that divinity fudge is the cause for universal moral conductThe early Stone Age Human lived in blanket(a) families called tribes. Their main activity was hunting to gather food and also fight with the fellow strange human to protect their food and family. There was no difference between the human and

The Logic of Descartes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The Logic of Descartes - Essay ExampleThe Logic of DescartesDescartes mat the only representation to obtain true knowledge was to rely solely upon human reason go ignoring the senses. Descartes wrote several books regarding the nature of existence and knowledge, providing us with plenty of framework to study and has had tremendous influence on those who have come after him. These books are typically divided into segments Descartes labels meditations. In these meditations, Descartes reflects upon the nature of the individual and hold ins that he does indeed exist as both a physical and a metaphysical being with a detailed consideration of the various elements that contribute to his awareness. Through statements such as I am non lodged in my body like a pilot in a vessel and I am not that set of limbs called the human body, Descartes attempts to bridge the difference between the new sciences and the receptive lights of the old philosophy, introducing in the process a new way of thinking about thinking. In Descartes Meditations on First Philosophy (1989), Descartes states emphatically I think, at that placefore I am. This simple-sounding statement is the turn out of a hold forth in which Descartes calls into question all of the assumptions hes come to know as a result of the philosophical thought of his day. To seek a higher version of the truth, Descartes felt it was necessary to question any assumption that had even the shadow of a doubt. Through this questioning process, he demonstrates how thought, not observation or the senses, is really the right foundation for knowledge. When I considered that the very same thoughts (presentations) which we experience when awake may likewise be experienced when we are asleep, while there is at that time not one of them true, I supposed that all the objects (presentations) that had ever entered into my mind when awake, had in them no more truth than the illusions of my dreams (Descartes, 2001). The first theme to be overcome was the concept that knowledge defined by a clear and distinct perception as being clear of sensation is foiled by its own dependence on the senses within the definition. Descartes argues that in order to fool a mind, a mind must first exist, indicating that the senses are not necessary to the development of a thinking being, so we must be something more than the physical material we are made of, something more than the set of limbs. In the process of breaking down all of his perceptions to determine the very basic, deepest thought that is not based on the senses, Descartes admits that there may be some way in which all of his senses could be fooled all of the time into thinking he exists this in itself proves his existence. But there is I know not what being, who is possessed at once of the highest power and the deepest cunning, who is constantly employing all his courtesy in deceiving me. Doubtless, then, I exist, since I am deceived and, let him deceive me as he may, he disregard never bring it about that I am nothing, so long as I shall be conscious that I am something (Descartes, 1989). Meditation III builds off of Descartes earlier idea that he exists because he is capable of thinking I think, therefore I am. Assuming that what he is able to perceive as distinct must be true, he strives to erase his mind of all information that has been gained through his fiver senses to arrive at what he knows deep within himself. In this item of first knowledge, there is simply a clear and distinct

Commentary on the questionnaire Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Commentary on the questionnaire - Essay ExampleDue to this fact, I oftentimes predisposed to being more of an justice of a situation and/or a particular issue. Although I realize that the test is not capable of analyzing or measuring each and every aspect of my someoneality, it is quite possible that I deplete overestimated my skills as an evaluator and should instead focus upon improving this particular aspect of my approach as a function of impact a more electro coercive disclosecome in the future.Interestingly, and somewhat surprisingly, the test denoted that irate and 11 out of 12 as far as being an ideas person. Whereas I have long prided myself with comply to the fact that I come up with potential solutions to issues and seek to engage teams in a positive way, the ranking of 11 out of 12 with respect to this category was not expected. In such a manner, this encourages me to continue this particular approach and engage team members with potential solutions and ideas as a means of effecting positive outcomes in the future. Furthermore, due to the fact that I have long held an interest in creativity and pore upon approaching issues from a standpoint that is uncommon to others, the potential for maximizing efficiency and benefit of being and ideas person comes to be represented to an even more full and complete degree.Additionally, as has been noted above, I have long understood myself to be both shy and somewhat in approachable in a situation that is defined by group interaction. Because of this, my scores with respect to leadership are rather secondary/moderate. Although ranking 6 out of 12 does not denote the fact that I am horrific of any level of leadership, it most certainly underscores the fact that I am not at facilitate or within a zone of comfort engaging with a position of leadership and guiding others with respect to how they might best engage the tasks at hand.What was additionally noted had to do with the fact that I ranked relatively

List and Discuss some key values and practices you consider vital to Essay

List and Discuss some key values and practices you examine vital to enhancing citizens participation in creating sustainable a - Essay ExamplePersonal commitment & practices No environmental protection activity would taste success unless it gets public attention and cooperation. Since people are liable for majority of the environmental destruction activities, educating the public about the necessities of environmental protection and sustainable development is a must. A slight change in the public behaviour can bring dividends in protect the environment. For example, billions of plastic carry bags have been used daily by the people all over the human being while they conduct shopping. Plastic is the number one villain in destroying environment since it is not a biodegradable material. Instead of using plastic carry bags for shopping, if public started to use musical composition carry bags or other environmental neighbourly carry bags, the use of plastic can be reduced considerabl y. each person should make a conscious effort to reduce his plastic consumption as more than as possible so that the environment will be benefitted immensely. In short, individuals can contribute heavy to the environmental protection activities by avoiding plastic material. ... So, farmers should try to reduce the use of chemical fertilizers as such(prenominal) as possible and they should use bio fertilizers as much as possible even if the yields are jolly less. Participating governmental bodies Environmental impacts cannot be confined to the political boundaries of nation states. Pollutants from one country a good deal travel to others, activities within a country can affect the environment of another, and the depletion of the ozone layer or changes in climate due to the release of green house gases affect us all(Singh and Singh, 2006, p.9). Participation of the governmental bodies is crucial for the success of environmental protection activities. Since individuals have limit ations in statementling the group activities, the intervention of governmental bodies is unavoidable to execute the environmental protection laws in a society. For example, it is difficult for an individual to check or control the emission of greenhouse gases from vehicles. Only the governmental agencies can check the smokes coming out from the vehicles and ask the drivers or vehicle owners to do the needful. Governmental bodies can play a vital role in cut the usage of plastic materials. As mentioned earlier, governmental bodies can ask the retailers to provide only environmental friendly carry bags to the shoppers. Consumers or shoppers have limitations in compelling or insisting the shop owners to provide paper bags or other bags manufactured from environmental friendly materials. In most countries there are laws that square off point pollution from specific sources, and making emission statistics public. This practice would not only

Milk and Ice Cream Products Essay Example for Free

Milk and Ice Cream Products EssayIce-Fili was originated in a Soviet government established company in 1937 and privatised in 1992. Briefly its business aras are purchase painful materials from abroad, manufacturing icing creams, and distri notwithstandingion them through subsidiary distributors for domestic markets. In 2001 Ice-Filis equity amounted to $10,638,000, and with its to the lowest degree liabilities total equity and liabilities was $11,832,000. Over half of the total assets was working capital of $6,338,000. Total sales was $25,147,000, mesh topology income was $1,702,000, consequently ROA was 14.4% and ROE was 16. 0% (see Exhibit 7). Financially Ice-Fili helps itself on business. For the most essential raw material to the ice cream taste, Ice-Fili only uses higher percentages of milk fat of high quality as well as high price imported from abroad, which makes difference Ice-Fili from foreign producers. Cost of ingredients forms as oftentimes as 42% of manufactu rers price. Ice-Fili invented for modernization of manufacturing equipments which were imported until the 1960s.Total expenses of equipment, maintenance and advertising share only 17% of manufacturers price, but Ice-Fili must pursue up-to-date technology as well as equipment from abroad. Traditionally Ice-Fili had non participated in distribution activities. Ice-Fili contracted with companies such as Eskimo-Fili for kiosks, Service-Fili for minimarts, gastronoms and bearaurants, Alter-West for gastronoms, restaurants, supermarkets. Costs of retailers and distributors reach 52% of retail prices (the rest of 48% is manufacturers price), but exposures of Ice-Filis products to customers is behind those of foreign competitor Nestl?Ice-Filis daily production capacity is 200tons and number of ice cream products is 170, in which exceed those of domestic and foreign competitors. However the Swiss food giant Nestl? invades in Russian ice cream markets with its long-term investment and frequ ent exposure of TV advertising. The boundaries of the business realm of Ice-Fili are not defined by its self-helping financial status and uniqueness of raw materials, manufacturing equipment and distribution channel, but also business dispute in the share with Nestl?

Hiv Ethical Dilemma Essay Example for Free

Hiv Ethical dilemma EssayHypothetical HIV case The case related to a diagnosed HIV client who sees a psychologist for psycho-education and psychological support following the diagnosis of his condition. In discussing it becomes apparent that the client is reluctant in telltale(a) his partner or practicing protective sex. The client is angry and indicated that he even considers deliberately infecting other possible partners. Dilemma 1) Reluctance to advise partnerThe organisation reasonably believes that the use or disclosure is prerequisite to lessen or prevent (i) a serious and imminent threat to an individuals life, wellness or safety or (ii) a serious threat to macrocosm health or public safety or (f) the organisation has reason to suspect that unlawful activity has been, is being or whitethorn be engaged in, and uses or discloses the personal information as a necessary part of its investigation of the matter or in reporting its concerns to relevant persons or authorities or ACTION taken All six points including reporting client to Police for taking further action

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Essay Example for Free

Post harmtic Stress Disorder EssayIntroductionPost psychic scathetic line disoblige (PTSD) is a mental health soma that presents in stamp of anxiety malady, and it usually lets future(a)(a) ikon to an event or incident that is terrifying and closelyly associated with an accession chance or genuine occurrence of exhausting body harm. These events exceed the coping capabilities of the individual, issuanceing into psychological trauma. As a result of the trauma, the modify individual recalls fear conditioning in their brain, possibly be arouse of certain brain chemicals that argon released. Some structures in the brain argon as well thought to undergo atrophy. The risk of create rank traumatic tautness derangement is in care manner influenced by genetics and in the flesh(predicate) characteristics, for example childhood throw, previous exposure and be conditions such(prenominal) as depression, gender and degree of exposure to trauma (Fullerton Ur sano, 2005).Most wad who die this condition are those who commit been uncovered to traumatic incidents in their childhood or adulthood, like inbred disasters, manmade disasters, accidents, army combat, and violent straitsal demoralize, as individuals or witnessing many unrivaled else undergo the incidents. Ab forth two thirds of the population planetary becomes subject to signifi tail assemblyt traumatic facts in the course of their lifetime. The level of exposure to or dwell of a traumatic event is consistently associated with the likelihood of growing PSTD. The increase of air traumatic latent hostility ail besides envisions significant correlation with paltry socioeconomic settings, age, race, ethnicity, and employment status. The touched people undergo day-and-night frightening thoughts as they recall the terrifying experiences, a great deal having sleep problems and feeling detached and becoming withdrawn.The diligents develop psychological problems such as neuroticism, guilt, difficulties in concentration, poor coping skills, and obsessive symptoms. The level of social body forth available for the people who support been exposed to traumatic events is the punishingest determinant of the risk of rear traumatic mental strain roughness (Fullerton Ursano, 2005). Post traumatic focusing trouble oneself is classified ad as acute, inveterate or decelerate onset. cracking touchtraumatic reach disorder presents with symptoms that do not persist beyond three months, while in the chronic resile the symptoms last more than three months. Delayed onset express traumatic tense disorder is the one in which the symptoms start appearing almost six months pursual exposure to the traumatic event. As compared to normal tenseness that is usually associated with acute reactions that rapidly return to the normal state, the biological and psychological mechanisms in bear traumatic speech pattern disorder are chronic and often bec ome severe with time (Fullerton Ursano, 2005).Current manipulation of post traumatic seek disorder implicates exposure therapies and anxiety worry develops as the first-line treatments. Pharmacological therapies such as the use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors have as well been designed and shown to be effective, though intensive studies are in progress to develop other form of drugs. In spite of the possible efficacy of pharmaceutical intercessions, psychological treatments still re main the preferred sanative approaches for this disorder (Keane, Marshall Taft, 2006). The outcome of the therapeutic interventions depends on the level of social support, and lack of symptoms such as obviateance, ablaze numbing and hyperarousal. According to Keane, Marshall and Taft (2006), PSTD has been in existence for many centuries though it became recognized in the 1980.This condition was commonly linked to contendfare, until studies demonstrated the occurrence of similar s ymptoms in the civilian population exposed to natural disasters, mass catastrophes and tragic accidents. Prior to this, post traumatic nisus disorder was identified by diverse names such as, shell shock, battle fatigue, accident neurosis, and post-rape syndrome (Keane, Marshall Taft 2006, p.163). After the American psychiatrical Association classified post traumatic focussing disorder, it was generally agreed that the condition resulted from traumatic events and not the previously perceived individual weakness. However, these traumatic events were taken to be separate outors beyond the daily benevolent experiences including war, natural calamities, manmade disasters, and rape among others.Symptoms of PSTDSymptoms of post traumatic tension disorder frequently alter the patients personal life and can light upon ones functional abilities. These symptoms mostly start immediately later on the traumatic experience, but often they may appear several months or years since the ex posure. These symptoms are classified into four types including know, avoidance, numbing and hyperarousal (Fletcher, 1996). Patients injury from this disorder frequently relive memories of the traumatic incidents in form of flashback and nightmares. This reliving of traumatic events is often installationed by stimuli think to the event.Avoidance of scenes related to the traumatic event is in any case a common symptom presenting in individuals with post traumatic stress disorder. The patients show a tendency to avoid stimuli and triggers that are associated with the traumatic memories, and may engage in activities to keep them from thinking or discussing such events. stolidity may also manifest as a way of avoiding the traumatic memories. Hyperarousal is another common symptom in PSTD patients, whereby the victims become advancedly alert and lookout for flagellums. This makes the patients to become very irritable and have difficulties in concentrating. The patients may also d evelop sleeping disorders, exhibit violent behavior and startled responses (Rosen, 2004).In geological formation treat in patients with PSTDVarious models have been developed to explain the memory and concentration problems manifested by patients touch on by post traumatic stress disorder. These models relate the cognitive problems with these patients with the changes in the brain structures that function in acquire and memory. The first model is described as fear structure, whereby the brain of the affected individuals become programmed to mental process information associated with the threatening experience and incidental physiologic, physical and behavioural responses.Another information processing model is ground on cognitive theory, with an assumption that the disorder progresses only if a person perceives the traumatic incident in a manner that makes the incident to become threatening after it has taken place. The perception of the trauma as being present results into in trusions and reliving symptoms, anxiety, and over alertness. Subsequently, the affected individual tries to decrease perceptions of the threat through behavioral and cognitive modifications, although these changes pass on perpetuate the symptoms (Rosen, 2004).Prevalence of PSTDEpidemiologic studies indicate that about 10 percent of the linguistic universal population experience PSTD at whatever point in their lifetime. Epidemiologic surveys also indicate that betwixt a third and two-thirds of the world population experience or witness trauma at some point in life. The most common forms of traumatic events people get exposed to or experience in developed countries acknowledge grave harm or death, fire disasters, natural calamities, and life-threatening accidents. The most prevalent forms of trauma experienced by females are rape, sexual exploitation and cry out, physical assault, and neglect, while physical assault and military-related trauma are more prevalent in males (Fulle rton Ursano, 2005). Post traumatic stress disorder can occur at any age, and the period it takes to develop following exposure or experiencing of a traumatic event ranges from hours to years.The preponderance of PSTD in the general population is high in females as compared to males, with an estimated preponderance of 10 percent and 5 percent respectively. Among individuals exposed to trauma, the prevalence of post traumatic stress disorder in males is 8 percent, while in females it is about 20 percent. The prevalence differences across gender lines are thought to be related to the specific form of trauma experienced. For instance, it has been shown that females who experience physical assault or are menace with a weapon are at a high risk of developing post traumatic stress disorder as compared to men subjected to the aforesaid(prenominal) trauma. Similarly, males who experience sexual deprave are at a higher risk of developing PSTD as compared to the females who also experienc e the same stressor. Additionally, exposure to interpersonal violence among women is positively associated with later development of post traumatic stress disorder. In general, exposure to interpersonal violence is strongly associated with the development of PSTD as compared to traumatic events that occur without a human perpetrator.Further studies show that of the entire population that experience or witness severe trauma at some point in their life, it is less than 20 percent who develop post traumatic stress disorder, indeed suggesting the existence of many risk genes (Fullerton Ursano, 2005). The prevalence is significantly change magnitude in countries where rates of violence, crimes and war are high, and also in parts of the world that are more prone to natural catastrophes. jr. age appears to be associated with a higher risk of developing post traumatic stress disorder (Keanne, Marshall, Taft, 2006). Meta analysis studies have also shown that children and teenagers who g et exposed to traumatic events are 1.5 times likely to develop post traumatic stress disorder than adults exposed to the same trauma.These findings suggest that the developmental process of the disorder in young individuals varies from that of the adults. Lower education achievement is also associated with increase risk for this disorder. Other factors associated with high prevalence of post traumatic stress disorder include pre-existing psychiatric problems, juvenile delinquency, childhood adversity, personality disorders, genetic factors, severity of the trauma, and lack of social support (Schnurr, Friedman Bernardy, 2002). Though findings on race are not consistent, a strong correlation has been shown to exist among the race of a person and the development of post traumatic disorder. Some studies have indicated that whites have a lower risk of developing post traumatic stress disorder as compared to nonwhites, even when other risk factors like exposure to traumatic events are h eld constant (Fullerton Ursano, 2005).Study findings have established that chronic PSTD is mostly associated with some psychiatric conditions and impair psychosocial activities. Among these comorbid conditions include, major depression, dysthemia, mania, generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, simple phobia, agoraphobia, alcohol blackguard/dependence, drug abuse, social phobia, and lead disorder (Schnurr, Friedman Bernardy 2002, p. 880). Despite these psychiatric conditions being risk factors for post traumatic stress disorder, the disorder itself can also be a predisposing factor for the psychiatric conditions.Etiology of PSTDThe major etiologic factor in PSTD is the trauma. However, various studies have shown that not all individuals who get exposed to same traumatic events develop the disorder, thus indicating the existence of certain predisposing conditions. Recognition that trauma alone may not be the sole cause of post traumatic stress disorder and the observations that not all people who get exposed to traumatic events develop the disorder have led to identification of various aspects where individual differences may determine vulnerability. These aspects include appraisal tendencies, genetic makeup, and certain risk factors (Fullerton Ursano, 2005). Appraisal tendencies relate to the individual perceptions of situations or events, whereby some individuals are likely to consider situation or events as threatening or horrifying as compared to other individuals. Clinical studies have shown that many individuals who experience or witness traumatic events do not develop post traumatic stress disorder.This is attributed to the individual variations on the ability to cope with traumatic situations, thus different individuals possess differing psychological reactions to similar traumatic situations. It has, in that respectfore, been recognized that exposure to traumatic events gets perceived through cognitive and emotional mechanisms involving app raisal (Vieweg et al., 2006). Whereas some individuals may perceive a situation or event as a huge threat, others may perceive the same situation as a challenge that demands them to sprout coping abilities. A number of risk factors that render some people more vulnerable to developing post traumatic stress disorder than others have been identified. These risk factors are classified as pre-traumatic, traumatic or post-traumatic (Vieweg et al., 2006).Pre-traumatic factors that may predict later development of post traumatic stress disorder as identified by various studies are childhood trauma, the existence of psychiatric problems, childhood maladaptive behaviors, poor family background, introversion, gender, and existence of physical health problems among others. Studies on early on periods of development show an increasing birth between early life trauma and a greater likelihood for the development of PSTD (Keanne, Marshall Taft, 2006 Edsall, Karnik Steiner, 2005). This theory is, however, back up by few data obtained from small samples. But still, it is well established that childhood abuse and experience of other trauma early in life are partially responsible for the manifestation of post PSTD later in life in the general adult population. In a take away carried out in the USA by MaCauley et al. (1997), it was shown that a significantly high number of women with a greater leaning to develop post traumatic stress disorder had undergone early life physical assault, sexual abuse or serious neglect.The study investigated about 2000 adult females drawn from different socioeconomic sort outs, and who were attending primary coil care internal medicine practices. McCauley and colleagues found that 22 percent of the study population experienced many physical symptoms with much higher levels of, depression, anxiety, somatization and interpersonal sensitivity, a fivefold higher prevalence of drug abuse and a twofold higher level of alcohol abuse (McCauley et a l. 1997, p. 1367). In general, the data supports the established models of risk for the development of PSTD, whereby genetic predisposition, temperament and childhood or adulthood trauma are significant risks factors for PSTD development. Therefore, the new-fashioned trauma experienced by an individual also triggers the development of post traumatic stress disorder.This has been shown to boot out from the effects of corticotropin releasing factor (CRF), which is a hormone involved in regulating the autonomic, tolerant and behavioral reactions to any stress. change magnitude secretion of corticotropin releasing factor is associated with increased expression of psychiatric symptoms, including PSTD symptoms (Sapolsky, 1996). With regard to traumatic factors, many studies on post traumatic stress disorder have shown that there exists a direct relationship between severity of the trauma and subsequent development of the disorder. The severity of the trauma includes characteristics li ke the length of time the trauma took, the frequency of occurrence and the degree of harm or threat on life. Other aspects of the severity of trauma are the severity of the experience, whether somebody was harmed during the incident, whether the victim was involved at one time or witnessed the trauma, and in case of sexual abuse, if the perpetrator of the atrocity was previously known to the victim.The severity of the trauma and PSTD are very consistent in the entire population, with high severity associated with increased risk for post traumatic stress disorder or severity of its symptoms (Edsall, Karnik Steiner, 2005). Studies have also shown that the post traumatic surround is also connected to later development of PSTD. Environments that are characterized by poor social support and unconnected social interaction patterns make people more vulnerable to develop post traumatic stress disorder (Ford, 2009). It has been shown that people who experience traumatic events such as rap e victims and war veterans suffer from noxious effects due to lack of post traumatic social support. Similarly, a number of studies have shown that post traumatic clinical interventions like debriefing are effective preventing later development of PSTD.Pathophysiology of PSTDMajor psychobiologic processes that give human beings capabilities to effectively deal with stressful events have been shown to be impaired in individuals having PSTD. Among the affected processes include the fight and flight responses, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis, the fear conditioning, appraisal and the acoustic startle reactions (Ford, 2009). The fight and flight responses are brought about by the stimulation of the appealing nauseated strategy. In normal persons, the stimulation of the harmonic nervous musical arrangement by a traumatic event results into a sequence of autonomic and muscular responses, which provide the person with capabilities to cope with the possible threat. Howev er in people who have PSTD, it has been established that sympathetic nervous system responses and adrenergic dysregulation are besides rare. Even minor trauma related stimuli have been observed to trigger autonomic hyperresponsiveness.It has also been found that the amount of catecholamine in the urine of the victim is significantly increased. Other sympathetic nervous system abnormalities observed include, down regulation of beta-2 and alpha-2 adrenergic receptors and increased reactivity to the alpha-2 antagonist yohimbine (Ford 2009, p. 37). Increased reactivity of yohimbine is associated with triggering of panic attacks and trauma-related memories in people suffering from PSTD. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system also acts to enhance the ability of people to cope effectively with stress. In patients who are experiencing post traumatic stress disorder, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system is poorly spiel and the victims exhibit abnormal features like decreased amounts of cortisol in urine, increased amounts of lymphocyte glucocorticoid receptor and excessively inhibited dexamethasone (Sapolsky, 1996).Another psychobiologic process that has been shown to be impaired in patients with PSTD is the acoustic startle response. In normal individuals, the acoustic startle system helps in creating awareness of any possible threat. However, in patients affected by the disorder, they exhibit a decreased latency and elevated amplitude in acoustic-startle-eyeblink reflex. Besides, the patients also show marginally trim down normal dysregulation of the startle reflex (Fullerton Ursano, 2005). Fear conditioning mechanisms have also been shown to be impaired in patients with PSTD. In normal individuals, fear conditioning mechanisms facilitate the storage of information relating to exposure or experience of aversive and threatening events, thus providing one with capabilities to cope with similar challenges in future (Fullerton Ursano, 2005) . Studies have, however, shown that people who suffer from this disorder exhibit a characteristic progression of the fear conditioning, evoking excessive emotional responses to perceived threats (Wisco, Marx Keanne, 2012).Appraisal process has also been shown to be diminished in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. Appraisal is a psychological process through which people develop capabilities to determine the nature of an event or situation, whether it is pleasant, gainsay or threatening. This in turn determines the coping, adapting and survival abilities of the individual. Patients with PSTD lack these abilities and often perceive the world as unsafe, tether(a) to development of deleterious cognitive, emotional and behavioral effects. (Wisco, Marx Keanne, 2012) Another possible pathophysiologic mechanism involved in posttraumatic stress disorder relates to brain abnormalities in terms of structure and function (Ford, 2009). Various studies using magnetic resonance ima ging techniques have demonstrated that the genus Hippocampus volume in patients who suffer from PSTD who were previously exposed to traumatic events is significantly decreased (Fletcher, Creamer Forbes, 2010).These findings have been supported by animal studies, which have shown that continued stress causes genus Hippocampus degeneration and loss of function of apical dendrite nerve cells. It has been hypothesized that this degeneration is as a result of secretion of neurotoxic amino acids by the increased quantities of glucocorticoids. Studies using positron waiver tomography have also indicated some functional brain abnormalities in individuals who are affected by PSTD. These studies have suggested elevated regional cerebral circulatory around the limbic and paralimbic regions. These regions play a role in the actualization and processing of emotions and stimuli, thus signifying their possible functions in the regulation of fear conditioning and appraisal (Rosen, 2004).Neurobio logical aspects of PSTDTraumatic events directly stimulate the catecholamine system, triggering fight and flight responses such as rates of cardiac activity, blood circulation, metabolism, and alertness. Subsequently, the hypothalamus is touch on to release corticotropin-releasing hormone, thus activating the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis due to the resultant stimulation of the pituitary gland and subsequent release of adrenocorticotropin hormone (Fullerton Ursano, 2005) Furthermore, cortisol is secreted by the adrenal glands, leading to increased stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system. All these responses serve to provide a person with coping and survival abilities when faced with a threatening or dangerous situation. However when the trauma experienced or witnessed is chronic, these fight and flight responses often become counterproductive. Regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis finally restores cortisol to normal levels through a negative feedback me chanism. In some instances, however, the catecholamine system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis may become poorly modulated, thus impeding normal trauma- and stress-related responses and leading to development of the deleterious effects of PSTD (Keanne, Marshall Taft, 2006).Various studies have shown that poor modulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and increased amounts of catecholamine generated by trauma adversely impair neuronal development in the brain. This occurs through different mechanisms such as increased degeneration of the nerve cells, prejudice of the myelination process, reduction of the quantity and size of dendritic processes, impairment in neural pruning, suppression of the synthesis of nerve cells, and a reduction in the synthesis of neutrophic factor by the brain cells (Schnurr, Friedman, Bernardy, 2002).Exposure to traumatic events has also been shown to cause certain geomorphologic changes in the nervous system, including reduced corp us callosum size, attenuated development of the left neocortex, hippocampus and amygdala, enhanced electrical irritability in limbic structures, and reduced functional activity of the cerebellar vermis (Edsall, Karnik Steiner 2005, p. 110). The parts of the brain that become squeeze by traumatic events have been shown to exhibit postnatal development for long periods of time, possess increased levels of glucocorticoid receptors and some formation of the nerve cells in the postnatal period. The above damages to the regions of the brain may cause the affected person to develop socialization, attachment, bonding and cognitive problems.The Catecholamine system and TraumaStudies have shown that trauma may affect the catecholamine system, as demonstrated by the increased levels of noreadrenaline and dopamine excreted in urine in people with PSTD. It has also been shown that the concentration of the catecholamine in urine in the patients relates to the length of time one is exposed to th e traumatic event, and also to the severity of the disorder cells (Schnurr, Friedman, Bernardy, 2002).The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis and TraumaInvestigations on the role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in the development of post traumatic stress disorder have indicated that affected children have elevated basal amounts of cortisal, while the affected adults have reduced amounts. The reduced cortisol levels in adults who are suffering from chronic PSTD is thought to be caused by the down-regulation of the anterior pituitary corticotropin-releasing hormone binding sites following the increase in corticotropin-releasing hormone levels, in addition to the increased negative feedback suppression of cortisol amounts by the pituitary gland. The down regulation process is considered as an adaptation response against the chronically increased amounts of cortisol, which may cause neurotoxicity cells (Schnurr, Friedman, Bernardy, 2002). Other studies have hypothesized the decreased baseline cortisal amounts in adults to result from adrenal insufficiency and chronically reduced secretion of cortisal from the adrenal glands.This hypothesis is supported by findings that adults with post traumatic stress disorder show increased adrenocorticotropin hormonal response to corticotropin releasing factor than normal persons (Keanne, Marshall Taft, 2006). The observations that the baseline cortisal amounts are increased in children who have been exposed to traumatic situations have post traumatic disorder indicates different physiological impacts compared to adults, though similar studies have yielded contrasting results indicating the cortisal levels to be increased. The variations in baseline cortisol amounts among children may be related to factors such as developmental stage of the child during the trauma experience and the period of time that has passed since the trauma occurred (Wolfgang et al., 2012).It is generally suggested that corticotropin releasi ng hormone and cortisol amounts are increased acutely after exposure to trauma, while developmental effects of the traumatic experience result into reduced amounts of cortisol because of the consistently increased corticotropin releasing hormone and the raised hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis negative feedback mechanism (Keanne, Marshall Taft, 2006). Functional and structural changes in the brain due to traumatic stress A number of literatures continue to indicate that glucocorticoids have some effects on the hippocampus in individuals who are suffering from post traumatic stress disorder. Most of these studies have demonstrated a reduction of the hippocampus in adult individuals with PSTD. The atrophy of the hippocampus is also reported in various conditions characterized by excessive secretion of glucocorticoid, such as the Cushing syndrome and repeated major depressive disorder.Further, it has also been demonstrated that the neurotoxic effects of glucocorticoid may be due to chronically increased levels of excitatory amino acids like glutamate (Sapolsky, 1996). Studies using magnetic resonance imaging have shown that adults previously exposed to trauma and who have developed post traumatic stress disorder have significantly decreased hippocampus volumes. Hippocampal atrophy has, however, not been observed in children suffering from this disorder. Instead, these children have, smaller intracranial, cerebral, and prefrontal cortex, prefrontal cortical white matter, right temporal lobe volumes, and smaller areas of the corpus callosum (Edsall, Karnik Steiner 2005, p. 114). These neurobiological observations are possibly caused by reduced cortical hemispheres communication because of memory impairment and dissociative disorders associated with PSTD (Sapolsky, 1996).The differences in brain structure between adults and children suffering from PSTD has been hypothesized to arise from co-occurrence of other disorders such as those associated with drug and alc ohol abuse in adults. It is also suggested that stress response tend to gradual, thus the neurobiological changes develop over time. Many brain structures, including the hippocampus are known to continue developing after birth. Studies have established that the hippocampus depicts increased formation of axons, dendrites, synapses and receptors, which become pruned after puberty (Vieweg et al., 2006). Generally, these studies indicate that traumatic experiences during the early years of life cause imperfect tense developmental impacts on the brain, hence implying that the development of post traumatic stress disorder, to some extent, is determined by the stage of neural development of a person (Sapolsky, 1996).It is also suggested that hippocampus atrophy may be a risk factor for the development of PSTD. This is based on comparison studies of twins who have post traumatic stress disorder exposed and those who did not have the disorder with other normal individuals. The study demonst rated that both the twins exposed to trauma and those not exposed had reduced hippocampi volumes as compared to the arrest group (Sapolsky, 1996). As regards to metabolic alterations in the brain of people with PSTD, various studies using positron emission tomography and functional magnetic resonance imaging techniques have been carried mostly in adults. These studies have indicated higher activities in the amygdale and anterior paralimbic areas, and reduced activity around the anterior cingulated and orbitofrontal sections in patients with PSTD (Havard Womens Health Watch, 2005). judging of Trauma and PSTDAssessment of trauma is the initial phase in the diagnosing of post traumatic stress disorder. It involves assessing if a person has experienced a traumatic situation, and identifying the situations that the person has had exposure to. The event or situation has to be evaluated whether it is life threatening. This is a significant step since symptoms of the disorder like re-exper iencing, avoidance, numbing, arousal, and concentration difficulties need to be examined against particular events. PSTD is assessed through a cluster of three symptoms including re-experiencing, avoidance and arousal. Appearance of the symptoms should be determined, whether they started immediately following exposure to the trauma and whether the symptoms are progressively increasing (Robertson, Humphreys Ray, 2004).Diagnosis of PSTDDiagnosis of post traumatic stress disorder is based on certain set of criteria, which are six in number. The first cadence is the demonstration of the existence of a stressor. An individual must have been exposed to, experienced or threatened with a situation where death or physical harm was eminent or real. The second measuring is the existence of re-experiencing symptoms, whereby the affected individual persistently perceives imaginary threats witnessed or experienced before. This mostly occurs as flashbacks and the affected individual feels and b ehaves as if the trauma is repeating. Re-experiencing may also come in form of distressing memories and nightmares, particularly when the person faced with situations related to the trauma. In some cases, the patients may present with physiological or psychological stress reactions such as full-blown panic attacks.The third quantity for diagnosis is the existence of avoidance and numbing symptoms (Robertson, Humphreys Ray, 2004). Individuals presenting with this disorder often try to escape trauma-related thoughts and actions and regularly present with reduced capabilities to engage in pleasure activities, difficulty in recalling some dimensions of the trauma, withdrawal from social activities, and detachment. The forth criterion includes observation of symptoms related to hyperarousal and hypervigilance. In this criterion, persons affected by post traumatic stress disorder may exhibit features such as lack of concentration, irritability, and disturbed sleep patterns.The fifth cri terion is the demonstration that re-experiencing symptoms, avoidance of actions and thoughts related to trauma, withdrawal, and irritability, and lack of concentration, disturbed sleep patterns, and irritability symptoms have occurred persistently for more than one month. The last criterion is the demonstration that the combined symptoms impairs with the functional and social abilities of the affected individual, coupled with significant distress. beneath this criterion, the existence of PSTD is ruled out if the patient presents with mild symptoms or when the person exhibits competent functional abilities (Wolfgang et al., 2012). interposition of PSTDThe major treatment intervention measures for patients who have post traumatic stress disorder are, cognitive behavioral therapy, pharmacotherapy and individual and group dynamic therapy (Wolfgang et al. 2012, p. 72).Cognitive-behavioral TherapyThis is the most effective form of treatment currently available for PSTD. The main approach es to cognitive-behavioral therapy involve exposure therapy and anxiety perplexity interventions. Exposure therapies mostly focus on the elimination of the strong effects caused by fear conditioning in people suffering from post traumatic stress disorder. These therapeutic approaches are based on the recognition that consistent exposure to perceived threats helps in fall the victims fear response to stimuli associated with trauma. Further, exposure therapy also helps in lessening the victims sympathetic nervous system and adrenergic hyperactivity triggered by trauma related stimuli (Wolfgang et al., 2012). Anxiety management interventions are usually geared towards equipping the patient with skills that can help in decreasing anxiety.These strategies, therefore, involve didactics the patient on areas like relaxation, social skills, stress management, and cognitive restructuring among others. Cognitive restructuring is the most preferred training since it helps patients to be able to correct the impaired appraisal mechanisms, thus lessening their tendency to perceive threats from barbarian situations. Cognitive-behavioral therapy can be provided on individual basis or in a group. In group psychotherapy, the patients are given trainings through psychoeducation, exposure and cognitive processing (Vieweg et al., 2006).PharmacotherapyBased on the identified neurobiological abnormalities that accompany post traumatic stress disorder, pharmacotherapeutic interventions can help in the treatment of many associated symptoms such as anxiety, depression and insomnia. Pharmacotherapy is often essential before induction of the patient to other therapeutic approaches like cognitive-behavioral therapy and psychodynamic therapy (Gibson, 2012). Many studies on the efficacy of antidepressants such as imipramine and fluoxetine have generated mixed results, often indicating that patients having severe and chronic PSTD show refractory responses towards these medications. Clinic al trials on the effectiveness of anti-adrenergic drugs like propranolol and clonidine also yield promising results, indicating the possible benefits in treating this disorder (Wisco, Marx Keanne, 2012).Dynamic psychotherapyThis form of therapy involves encouraging the patient to make free association of ideas and feelings, while allowing the psychotherapist to make interpretations of the implications of the associations. The psychotherapist also provides recommendations depending on the light of the situations and the perceived causes of the symptoms. The main objective of this form of therapy is to unravel the exact nature of the patients psyche so as to help in managing the psychic tension (Wisco, Marx Keanne, 2012).This therapy approach, therefore, relies on the establishment of an interpersonal relationship between the patient and the psychotherapist.It can be applied in various contexts such as in individual psychotherapy, group psychotherapy, and family therapy among other areas. In dealing with PSTD patients, the dynamic psychotherapy approach mostly targets the introduction of a trustworthy and safe environment so as to enable the patient reveal the unfathomable traumatic experiences. Once the traumatic content has been obtained, focus shifts to analysis of the trauma in detail and examinations of the re-experiences unneurotic with the avoidance symptoms. Patients are finally guided to disengage from the perceived threat and make appropriate reconnections in their social life (Wisco, Marx Keanne, 2012).RecommendationsBecause of the increased rates of traumatic experiences in the world nowadays, prevalence of PSTD is anticipated to increase with time. It is imperative that more research be carried out to develop appropriate prevention and early intervention measures to curb the disorder (Keanne, Marshall Taft, 2006). These measures should be based on the already established risk factors for the disorder and should mainly target individuals exhi biting acute stress symptoms so that early cognitive-behavioral interventions are given. It is also important that further research be carried out on the neurobiological aspect of posttraumatic stress disorder, particularly in children (Rosen, 2004). These studies willing provide more information regarding functional and structural alterations in the brain associated with this disorder to enable conception of appropriate diagnosis tools.ConclusionPost traumatic stress disorder is an anxiety disorder presumed to be caused by traumatic experiences. However, many individuals exposed to traumatic events do not develop the disorder. In addition, the prevalence of the disorder in people who have been traumatized is low, thus indicating the existence of other certain risk factors that incline some individuals to develop the disorder. Intensive studies have helped in creating more understanding of the function of the risk factors in the development of the disorder, and subsequent develop ment of treatment approaches. Despite various interventions such as CBT and pharmacotherapy aiding in management of PSTD, there is need to conduct more studies to establish measures that can be used as early interventions and proper diagnostic tools for PSTD.ReferencesEdsall, S., Karnik, N. Steiner, H. (2005). Childhood trauma. In, Clinical child psychiatry, 2nd ed, Eds. Klykylo, W. and Kay, J. London John Wiley sons. Fletcher, K. (1996). Childhood posttraumatic stress disorder. New York, NY Guildford Publications Inc. Fletcher, S., Creamer, M. Forbes, D. (2010). Preventing post traumatic stress disorder Are drugs the answer? Australian and New Zealand ledger of Psychiatry, 44, 1064-1071. Ford, J. D. (2009). Post traumatic stress disorder Science and practice. New York, NY Academic Press. Fullerton, C. S. Ursano, R. J. (2005). Posttraumatic stress disorder Acute and long-term responses to trauma and disaster. Washington DC American Psychiatric Press. Gibson, C. (2012). Review o f posttraumatic stress disorder and chronic pain The path to integrated care. JRRD, 49(5), 753-776. Harvard Womens Health Watch. (2005). Not getting over it Post-traumatic stress disorder. Keanne, T. M., Marshall, A. D. Taft, C. T. (2006). Posttraumatic stress disorder Etiology, epidemiology, and treatment outcome. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 2, 161-197. McCauley, J., Kern, D. E., Kolodner, K., Dill, L., Schroeder, A. F., DeChant, H. K., rydden, J., Derogatis, L. R. Bass, E. B. (1997). Clinical characteristics of women with a history of childhood abuse Unhealed wounds. JAMA, 277, 1362-1368. Robertson, M., Humphreys, L. Ray, R. (2004). Psychological treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder Recommendations for the clinician based on a review of literature. J Psychiatr Pract, 10(2) 106-18. Rosen, G. (2004). Posttraumatic stress disorder Issues and controversies. West Sussex John Wiley Sons. Sapolsky, R. M. (1996). Stress, glucocorticoids, and damage to the nervous sys tem The current state of confusion. Stress, 1(1), 1-19. Schnurr, P. P., Friedman, M. J. Bernardy, N. C. (2002). Research on posttraumatic stress disorder Epidemiology, pathophysiology, and assessment. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58(8), 877-889. Vieweg, W. V., Julius, D. A., Fernandez, A., Beatty-Brooks, M., Hettema, J. M. Pandurangi, A. K. (2006). Posttraumatic stress disorder Clinical features, pathophysiology,and treatment. Am J Med, 119(5), 383-390. Wisco, B. E., Marx, B. P. Keane, T. M. (2012). Screening, diagnosis, and treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Military Medicine, 177(8), 7-13. Wolfgang, W., Falk, L., Frank, L. Johannes, K. (2012). Psychodynamic psychotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder related to childhood abuse- principles for a treatment manual. publicise of the Menninger Clinic, 76(1), 69-93.

Education of African American Male Students Essay Example for Free

Education of Afri give notice American Male Students tryThe Brown vs. the Topeka panel of Education was a landmark decision of the join States peremptory coquette which let push through uprightnessed racial segregation within everywheret upbringingal legal action facilities. Segregation of public education existed until the Supreme Court considered arguments by the schools requesting relief concerning the depute of desegregation. In Brown II, the Supreme Court delegated the task of carrying out the desegregation to district courts with orders that desegregation occur with all deliberate speed (The get together States Supreme Court, 1954). This joint with all deliberate speed was easier s uphold than done. Segregation practices continued in America well aft(prenominal) 1954. During these early long time groups like The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), Southern Christian Leadership Conference, and The Nation of Islam emerged as the refreshing lead organizations for the Civil Rights Movement. Leaders like Megar Evers, Malcolm X and Martin Luther queen Jr. emerged all were assassinate before reaching the age of forty. These assassinations sparked the emergence of lateer and more than than thorough groups. Groups like the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee and the Black lynx Party had goals for education. The Black Panther Party created a comprehensive plan for improving their association. The plan was called the Ten tier Plan (Ten Point Plan, 1966). The Ten Point Plan stated We believe in an educational system that will shake off to our people knowledge of self.If a man does not hurt knowledge of himself and his position in bon ton and the world, thus he has little chance to relate to anything else. (Ten Point Plan, 1966, p.1). The 1960s were an era of great diversity in African American culture. This was also a time for new leadership in the African American residential district. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and Megar Evers had chosen to use a nonviolent approach. Malcolm X was more motif and was willing to use violence to get equal treatment. After all three leaders were assassinated leaders such(prenominal) as Stokely Carmichael had a new concept ofwhat America should become. In 1968 Stokely Carmichael created the confines institutional racism, which he defined as the corporate failure of an organization to provide an appropriate and professional inspection and repair to people because of their food color, culture or social origin.One of the new topics in education reform focus on how to educate African American manfuls. Students in urban nations have been exposed to deteriorating conditions, which include overcrowded classrooms, contain funding for education, and unstable learnedness environments. In recent years the education of African American manlikes has encountered approximately(prenominal) occupations. Although 72% of black students in America graduate from full(prenominal) school, over 45% of black anthropoids evenfall out of spunky school (Green Carl, 2000). other problem is that one in four African American manlikes argon expelled from school each year. Additionally a disproportionate turn of events of African-American antherals atomic turning 18 in special education and remedial reading classes (Lee, Winfield Wilson, 1991). jibe to Livingston and Nahimana (2006), victor with African-American manfuls requires understanding the social stage setting in which they exist. This journey of cultural understanding begins by recognizing conceptualize assumptions about urban African-American potent children, African-American children, particularly urban youth, atomic number 18 very acute on picking up the bragging(a)s perception of them. Thus, understanding the behavior and energisings of urban African-American families will greatly aid in understanding and educating the African-American male child. (p.21 0) Statement of the problemIn recent years, thither has been a trend of academic underachievement among African American males. Economic opportunities, lack of education, lack of father figures and the lack of understanding from the American society has damaged the self-esteem and the educational opportunities of youthfulness African American males. This research discussed the economic consumption that education has contri notwithstandinged to the underachievement of African American males in education.The purpose of this see was to re spot and crumple the data regarding the education of African American male students. Specifically, the find out lookedat the factor impacting the education of African American male students. This results of this study aims to encourage and educate professionals by providing information and additional strategies in promoting the educational success of African American male students. The following research questions guided this study1. What factors have influenced the education of African American males? 2. How have historical perspectives regarding poverty in the African American community changed? 3. How have attempts to desegregate public schools in America operated? 4. What strategies can educators use to improve opportunities for African American male students? Limitations of StudyThis study was based on existing literature and research regarding factor impacting African American male students. The image of data collection included journals, books, and articles get bying with African American male student. The literature consisted of a number of studies involving the African American family structure. Studies in the field of education often do not include a control group. Other sources describe recommendations or proposals that may correlate with successful implementation of various strategies, nevertheless do not have quantifiable data to give birth those models. The limitations that these factors bring include the amount of study and research that exists within the literature Research was confined to the past decade with the exception of the historical aspects presented commentary of TermsAccountability a policy of holding schools and teachers accountable for the academic progress students by linking such progress with funding for salaries, and maintenance Culture refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activity significance. Different definitions of culture reflect various theoretical bases for understanding, or criteria for evaluating, human activity. Institutional racism the collective failure of an organization to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their color, culture or ethnicorigin. Poverty the state or condition of having little or no money, goods, or means of support condition of being poor indigence. Public education education mandated for or offered by the government to the children of the worldwide public, whether national, regional, or local, provided by an institution of civil government, and paid for, in whole or in part, by taxes.The term is generally applied to basic education, K -12 education and primary and standby education. Racism a belief or doctrine that inherent differences among the various human races determine cultural or private achievement, usually involving the idea that ones own race is superior and has the right to rule others. Racial segregation is characterized by separation of different races in daily life when both races argon doing equal tasks, such as eating in a serenityaurant, drinking from a water fountain, using a rest room, attending school, going to the movies, or in the rental or purchase of a home. Urbanization means increase spatial scale and/or density of settlement and/or business and other activities in the area over time. The process could occur either as natural expansion of the existing community (usually not a major factor since urban r eproduction tends to be lower than rural), the transformation of peripheral macrocosm from rural to urban, incoming migration, or a combination of these.Design of the StudyThis study was descriptive in nature. All data were based upon research of available literature on the challenges of poverty and its role in the education of African American male students. Guiding questions were answered based upon a review of existing literature and research which addressed the factor impacting African American male students Literature on educational learning strategies were identified, studied and discussed.The information is presented in four chapters Chapter One will consist of the introduction of the research paper. Chapter twain is the review of literature, outlining as pertinent to the research question. Chapter Three presents the analysis of the findings, and theme regarding the historical perspectives and impacting factors associated with the education of African American males. Chapte r Four consists of a discussion including summary, conclusions, and recommendations.CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF THE LITERATUREIntroductionBefore educators analyze the negative statistics for African American males, the fact that there have been successes must be realized. According to Livingston and Nahimana (2006), Success with one-year-old African-American males requires understating the social context of use in which they exist. This journey of cultural understanding begins by recognizing preconceived assumptions about urban African-American male children. African-American children, particularly urban youth, are very keen on picking up the adults perception of them, thus understanding the behavior and the dynamics of urban African-American families will greatly aid in the understanding and educating the African-American male child. Although the literature is quick to tear down out that umpteen urban African-Americans are reared in single family home, one should not assume that ther e are not positive males in the childs all-inclusive family. Uncles, grandfathers and even older male siblings can endure an important role in aiding our work with students. ( p.210)There are several(prenominal) questions that could be asked about the education of African American males. According to Education Today (2007, p.22), there is a new question that will be asked. Will we lose the next two or three generations, or possibly every generation of African-American boys hereafter to negative media, gangs, medicines, poor education, unemployment, father absence, crime, violence and decease? African American male students are faced with several challenges in education such as unemployment, housing, violence, incarceration, do drugss, and education. According to Livingston and Nahimana (2006), Educating young African American males has become an increasing concern for educators and human service professionals over the past 20 years.Disproportionate rates of school failure, fall asleepout, and incarceration all speak to the need to wear out interventions, which can account for the structural and ecological factors that impact African-American families and African-American children (209). Even the United States Senate has sight the new disturbing trend among AfricanAmerican males. According to United States Senator Charles Schumer (D-NY) in 1999, 65 portion of African-American male senior high school dropouts in their 20s were jobless. He added that by 2004, the share had increase to 72 pct, as compared to 29 share of whites and 19 percent of Latinos. Schumer also noted the incarceration rate of young African-American males is at historic highs, more than half of African-American males do not finish high school, and an African-American man in his 20s without a high school diploma is more likely to be in jail than to be working (Wright, 2007, p.4).Family Structure/FoundationIn America, the traditional family structure consists of a mother and a father. A ccording to May, In the 1950s the normative American family consisted of a breadwinner father, homemaker mother, and several children, all living in homes in the suburbs on the outskirts of a larger city. It was a narrow view of a model family, yet it pervaded the media and was widely accepted as the ideal and most normal ( p.20). Today, the dynamic of the American family structure is much different. Bishop (1991, p 23 ) stated that In the 1990s there are still traditional families with parents and children, but the definition of a family has broadened considerably. Children are increase by many varieties of warmth adults single parents, grandparents, kin-networks, homosexual couples, and others. Even traditional appearing families are often blended families of children from different biologic parents. African American families have similar dynamics.Billingsley (1968, p. 36) identified three categories of African American families primary families (e.g., two-parent), extended fam ilies (e.g., other relatives, in-laws), and augmented families (e.g., nonrelated individuals). The structure of the African American family has not remained static over the years. According to shell and Mitchell-Kernan (1995) African American women are now twice as likely to maintain families solely then they were in 1940. Another trend involves women heading the household. According to Darity and Myers (1995, p. 1), The rise in female-headed families among African Americans has been swift. Twenty-eight percent of African American families were headed by women in 1970, and 46% were female headed. This data make it clear that patterns of African American family formation have undergone substantial change over the past 50years in a number of important aspects. The absence of fathers from the homes has been associated with delinquency. According to Auletta, living in single-mother household has been suggested as a contributing factor in the development of adolescent problem behaviors (p.23).There are other concerns with the African American family that involve marriage. According to Tucker and Mitchell-Kernan (1995), the proportion of African American women and men who marry has declined by 20% over the past 50 years, compared to the general commonwealth that has remained steady. The combined impact of delayed marriage, more non-marriage, high divorce rates, and a high rate of births out of wedlock are observed as having a reasoned effect on family formation in the African American community. Four out of every 10 African American families have a woman maintaining the family without the support of another(prenominal) adult. These trends are directly related to the well being of African American families and communities.UnemploymentIn the African American community there are several challenges for young African American males. The lack of jobs has a lot to do with poverty and continues to plague the African American community. According to McAdoo (p. 15), High r ates of unemployment have had a profound impact upon the African-American community. Discrimination, inequalities in hiring and recessions, plant closings, the removal of high paying, industrial and manufacturing jobs to rural America and tertiary World countries have removed a number of African-American males from the urban employment sector. Historically, the rate of unemployment among African-American men has been twice that of White America. On the east coast the unemployment rates are even more disproportionate.Currently in major urban cities like Philadelphia, Baltimore, and New York, 35-55% of African-American males in the midst of the ages of 18 and 35 are unemployed (National Urban League, 2005). According to Dubowitz (1999), Currently 24.4% of African-Americans live in poverty as compared to moreover 8.2% of Whites and 22.5% of Hispanics.(p.55) There have been other studies that reveal males are more likely to remove themselves from their family when they are futile to provide financial support (Livingston McAdoo, 1993).For African-American Families, and African-American male children in particular, high rates of male unemployment can create a context of fatherlessness, economicinstability, poverty, hopelessness characterized of manifested in children by low expectations, increased rates of high school drop out, and high rates of delinquency, which eventually assist in maintaining the context of persistent poverty (McAdoo, 1993). Unemployment can create multiple mental and psychological problems for African American male studentsDrugs in the African American CommunityThere is an increased concerned about drugs in the African American community. In the African American community, children endure the most pain when fathers or brothers are abstracted because they are in jail. According to Newman (2005), One reason why many fathers cant be with their families is because of this regions guide war on drugs. Of the 2 million people behind bars in Am erica, more than 450,000 are there for drug offenses. While drug abuse doesnt discriminate, our drug policies do. (pg12), Another statistic indicate that African Americans are more likely to go to jail for drug offences. According to Newman (2005,), Despite roughly equal drug use between African-Americans and Whites, African-Americans are 13 quantify more likely to go to jail for drugs than Whites. In New York, 93% of the people in jail under the Rockefeller drug laws are African-American and Latino. religious offering people treatment and help instead of incarceration for their drug addictions would not merely save this country much-needed resources, it would help keep thousands of fathers with their families.(pg12)There is another puzzling situation in the low-income African American community related to drugs. There are higher(prenominal) risk factors that create an environment more conducive to drug abuse and incarceration. According to Schensul (2005, p.39), The drug use of low-income African American emerging adults is more troublesome because those protective(p) factors associated with the role changes that mark emerging adulthood in middle class white youths and many youths of color are not necessarily available to poor young people. These statistics reflect a correlation between income, drugs, and possible incarceration. Schensul (2005) noted that urban low-income youths experience many of the same developmental transitions as their middle-class counterparts. almost of the factors that promote drug use include increased residential instability, expanded and diversified social networks, moving-picture show to high risk settings, and negativesocial influences that support and promote the use of drugs and alcohol. However, urban students are correction to inadequate primary and secondary school education, family stressors stemming from the vagaries of impoverishment and government social policies, limited local professional role models, and few job opportunities that guarantee salaries and benefits above the poverty level. Material goods can also play a key role in the lifestyle of young African American males.According to McCord, J. (1990,), sometimes there are families struggle that are related to school life (fashionable clothing and social life) but may not be able to do so for emerging adults whose financial needs are increasing. Selling marijuana is an option for intermittent income supplementation, and many youths have friends or relatives who are in a position to supply them with small amounts from time to time. Once involved in drug selling networks, youths can move to selling additional drugs if they believe it is reasonable to accept the associated risks. This means that students are willing to land unnecessary risk.(pg 35).Crime and Violence in the African American CommunityIn the African American community there is a mistrust of law enforcement. According to McCord, (1990), Unlike suburban White youths, however, African American and Latino youths are targets for street violence, arrest, and police harassment and abuse. Once im prisoned, or on release as adults, their institutional record may preclude voting and render them ineligible for employment opportunities. shackles may introduce them to gang members or prospective customers. (p. 44) Studies also revealed that certain minority youth are at greater risk for violent behaviors. According to Fitzpatrick and LaGory (2000,), Specifically, African-American adolescents are more likely than White, Hispanic, or Asian youth to instigate physical fighting and weapon-related violence and to suffer both fatal and nonlethal injuries from physical assaults. Not only are minority youth at greater risk for using by aggressive peers, they are more likely to perpetrate violence.(p. 21) African Americans are at higher risk to have more fatal injuries than Whites.This results in higher homicide rates. Many prominent African Americans have shown concern about young African American students. The most notable of the critics, BillCosby, has been vocal regarding the number of African-American men who are incarcerated and the growing number of poor African-American children who are being raised by irresponsible parents. Cosby publicly chastised many in the African-American community for not doing enough to deal with critical problems and issues, such as illiteracy, poverty, crime and violence, which remain challenges in the African American community.Cosby told a jammed crowd gathered at a 50th anniversary celebration commemorating the Brown v. Board of Education decision the ladies and gentleman of the lower economic people are not holding up their end in this deal. These people are not parenting. They are buying things for kids $500 sneakers for what? And yet they fashion spend $200 for Hooked on Phonics (Watson, 2004, p. 10), Even though Cosbys statements were harsh, they created a debate, which stirred confabulation in the Afr ican American community.IncarcerationAccording to Kunjufu (2001, p. 15 ), over the past twenty years there has been a decline in violent crime in the United States. But in the African American community there has been an opposite trend. There are several factors that cause these trends, including poverty, family structure, high unemployment rates, crime, drugs and education. Kunjufu also reported that African-American males in juvenile detention centers and prison have increased in recent years. Each year, thousands of young boys are placed in detention centers and adult facilities. Although African American males comprise only about 6% of the population of the, they represent over 50% of the penal population (Kunjufu, 2001). There are several other statistics that prove alarming to the African American community and the rest of the citizens in the United States. According, to Kunjufu Currently one in three Africans American males between the ages of 20-29 is either in jail or on pr obation.The overwhelming majority of these men have been arrested and detained due to drug convictions. (p. 26), Another statistic is that there are major inequities when it comes to sentencing of African American males. According to Livingston and Nahimana, inequities in sentencing have lead to time-consuming jail and prison terms for these young men at the most malleable period in their development. The return into the drug trade and the life of crime becomes a viable choice for many of these young men, accounting for the high rates of recidivism foryoung African American males (p.11). This is alarming because of high unemployment and limited education as well as the fact that prior conviction can lead to long term prison. The incarceration of African American males has had a dynamic effect on the community.According to Arias (2007), The overwhelmingly high rate of incarceration among African-American men in America is striking a blow not only to the health and well-being of thos e men but also to their families and communities. (p.20) This study reported that 12% of young African American males between the ages of 20-39 have been taken out of the household. This places a tremendous strain on African American women to take care of the household. Another staggering statistic is that only 62 percent of African American males graduate from high school. According to National Urban League Panel (2005, p.1), On average, only 62 percent of African-American males graduate from high school with their original class. African-American males make up only 6 percent of the United States population, but 40 percent of the prison population. Forty percent of those African-American inmates are between the ages of 17 and 26. (National Urban League Panel,).The age group between 17 and 26 is the age group that will likely attend college. If these watercourse trends continue, there will be a tremendous increase in the number of African American males incarcerated. According to P luviose (2006,)by 2020, if accepted trends hold, that figure will rise to more than 65 percent for African-American men between the ages of 20 and 29. (p. 22), These figures illustrate a tremendous need for employment and educational programs. The prison rate of African American males has had substantial economic impact on the African-American community. According to Holmes and Hughes (2003, p. 44), incarceration rates in the United States, prison and jail inmates at midyear in 2002, reported that 12.9% of African-American males between the ages of 25 and 29 were incarcerated. segregate SchoolsWhat would Horace Mann think about the state of education today? Horace Mann was the father of the American school system. According to Hubbard (2005), Horace Mann believed that the jet schools should be available to everyone. He wanted them to be available to people that were rich, poor, and of different backgrounds.As mentioned in the beginning Brown vs. the Board of Education was a landm ark decision of the United States Supreme Court which proscribe racial segregation within public education facilities. In Brown II, the Supreme Court delegated the task of carrying out the desegregation to district courts with orders that desegregation occur with all deliberate speed (The United States, 1954). The current challenge that urban education face is called the No Child Left Behind Act. According to The United States Department of Education (2007) No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (Public Law 107-110), commonly cognise as NCLB, is a United States federal law that was passed in the House of Representatives on May 23, 2001.This law was signed on January 8, 2002, and reauthorized a number of federal programs aiming to improve the performance of United States primary and secondary schools by increasing the standards of accountability for states, school districts and schools, as well as providing parents more flexibility in choosing which schools their children would attend. A dditionally, NCLB promotes an increased focus on reading and re-authorizes the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (NCLB, 2007). One of the many challenges with No Child Left Behind is that the goals are commendable, but the expectations are unreasonable because of the deterioration of the urban schools school district.The next challenge in urban education the education of African American males. According to Misani (2007,) nationally between one-half and two-thirds of African male students drop out of school. In addition, the research bring out a 65 percent dropout rate in Chicago, with only 35 percent of African-American male students graduating from high school. In New York, the dropout rate is 74 percent, with merely 26 percent of African-American male students graduating. p. 34) This is a tragic situation in urban schools when nearly seventy five percent of the African American male students are not graduating. According to Smith (2005, p. 27), the drop out rates fo r African American males in metropolitan areas is well over 50 percent.Another trend is that some African American males believe that it is easier to drop out than to complete high school Bowye (2007, p.3) stated, It ismost disturbing that dropping out of high school is more common than graduating from high school for children of color. Focusing on another disconcerting trend within the community for African-American young men, Dr. Hodge pointed out Going to jail is sightly the common experience for children of color (Misani, 2007, p.35). If African American children continue to think this way, many are headed for prison and the crime rate will steadily increase in these areas.There is also a problem when it comes to the placement of African American males in education. There are disproportionate numbers of African American males placed in special education and suspended from school. According to Rodney and Crafter (1999, p.185), Nationally African American males score lower than a ny other groups on standardized test and are three times more likely than their Caucasian American counterparts to be misplaced in special education or classes for slow learners. When situations like this continue to occur students feel neglected and are more likely to drop out of school. Many African American students think that the American educational system is unfair.According to Misani (2007, p. 34), African-American boys are disproportionately and inappropriately assigned to special education classes, expelled and suspended from school, and underrepresented in college preparatory classes. whence the study concluded Many of those who graduate are not prepared for college or further educational training. (Misani, 2007 p.34) African American males represent 8.6 % of the nations public students in 2000-2001, but in some districts, they make up as much as 41 percent of the special education population (Smith, 2005).